HIGHLIGHTS
SUMMARY
Large amounts of acids (H2SO4 or HCl), bases (CaO, MgO, NH3, NaOH, or N a2CO3), and sulfides for precipitation (Na2S, NaHS, H2S) are consumed in processes such as leaching, the precipitation of iron and other impurities, the generation of intermediates (e_g, mixed-hydroxide precipitate (MHP) and mixed-sulfide precipitate (MSP)), and the solvent-extraction (SX) and ion-exchange (IX) processes required to separate and purify metals. The authors should also not underestimate the energy costs for transportation, e_g, chemicals from production facilities to mining sites or hydrometallurgical plants. As a result, significant volumes of . . .
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