HIGHLIGHTS
SUMMARY
To counteract the effects of climate change threats and to protect people and property from inundation and erosion (i.e., shoreline stabilisation) in these ever expanding coastal urban cities, multifaceted coastal defences or armouring (i.e., "ocean sprawl"; Duarte et_al, 2013), such as seawalls, breakwaters, revetments, bulkheads, pontoons, jetties and slipways, are constructed (Chapman and Bulleri, 2003; Moschella et_al, 2005; Bulleri and Chapman, 2010; Dafforn et_al, 2015). High species richness and diversity can enhance ecosystem productivity and stability (Stachowicz et_al, 2007), while a decline in biodiversity may alter ecosystem functioning with a consequent loss . . .
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