Gendered perceptions and the costs of political toxicity: experimental evidence from politicians and citizens in four democracies

HIGHLIGHTS

• What: Using large-scale image-based conjoint experiments in the United States Denmark Belgium and Chile the authors demonstrate that both politicians themselves and citizens regard messages targeting women politicians as more toxic than otherwise equivalent messages targeting men. The authors examine the effects of the gender of a politician who is targeted with a politically toxic behavior by presenting politician and citizen respondents with pairs of images of social media conversations that are designed to visually mimic hostile exchanges on social media. The authors show how interpretations of gendered prejudices and the use of toxicity to . . .
  

   

  

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